APPLYING SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES TO
RAILROAD REPAIR
SHOP
Aniketh Pattnaik(10)
Source: paper comes from Carl Graves, "Scientific Management and the Santa Fe Shopmen of Topeka, Kansas, 1900-1915," Ph.D diss., Harvard University, 1980
PAPER:
Students of labour and business history have studied scientific management in such metal factories as the Watertown Arsenal, but no one has analyzed closely this work reorganization in the railroad industry.
This paper examines
how Taylorism was applied
on the Santa
Fe between 1904
and 1918 and shall try
to answer six
questions.
- · What was the nature of shop work on the Santa Fe in the early 20th century?
- · Why was scientific management installed?
- · What did the work reorganization look like?
- · What were the results?
- · Why was it ended, never revised, or widely copies by other railroads?
- · Finally, what are some of the broader implications of the experiment?
WHAT WAS
THE NATURE OF
RAILROAD SHOP ( SANTA FE)?
Railroad shops specialized
in the construction
and repair of locomotives and
freight and passenger
cars. Although some lines built part
of their locomotives
and cars, most
of this work
was performed by such
outside firms as
the Baldwin Locomotive
Works.
Therefore, most railroad
shop work was
the repair of
rolling stock and engines.
The task was
done by railroad
mechanics -- machinists, boilermakers,
blacksmiths, carmen, their
helpers and apprentices, as
well as common laborers. In the first
two decades of the
20th century, railroad
shopmen were more numerous than
the train and enginemen
and just as
essential to their companies' operations.
These shopmen toiled in
roundhouses and in small
and large shops
located at various
points along the line.
While the men
in roundhouses and
small shops did
minor 124 repairs, the mechanics in
larger facilities performed
such time- consuming tasks
as locomotive rebuilding,
as well as
some new construction.
The Santa Fe
Railway's chief repair
and construction facilities
were located in
Topeka, Kansas. These shops employed 1,600 men in 1900,
and by 1918
the total was
approximately 3,000. In addition,
medium-sized shops (employing between 250 and 750 men) were located
in such places
as San Bernardino, California;
Ft. Madison, Iowa; and
Cleburne, Texas. Smaller
contingents of shopmen were found
in roundhouses and adjacent shop facilities at nearly
every division point
along the system.
Except for the Topeka car shop employees (who performed piecework),
all Santa Fe shopmen were paid
on an hourly
basis.
Shop work on the
Santa Fe was
varied, although at
times it approached the repetitive
nature of mass production. Railway mechanics disassembled
and rebuilt locomotives
and repaired or built
freight and passenger
cars. In the
larger shops this
work
was done by
an increasingly specialized
labour force. Occupational
titles reflected this
specialization: there were
(in Topeka) blacksmiths, hammersmiths,
and springmakers; there
were inside and outside
coach carpenters, car
painters, air brake repairers, and
car repairers; there
were erection and
machine machinists, as well
as various types
of helpers and labourers.
Sometimes the work
resembled mass production. Although they
had many common parts, there
were countless variations
in their structure, which meant
that the work
was more varied
and required more
skill than repetitive assembly-line
mass production. (During the
age of steam, the
Santa Fe had
280 different classes
of locomotives.)
WHY WAS SCIENTIFIC
MANAGEMENT INSTALLED?
By introducing scientific
management, the Santa
Fe hoped to check
rising repair costs,
increasing union influence
over shop work, and
general deterioration in
worker-management relations.
The company's
concern for efficiency
and cost reduction
was shared by other corporations in
this period, but
the Santa Fe's interest
was especially strong
because of its
recent recovery from bankruptcy
and its new leadership. A
depression had forced the
already troubled Santa
Fe into receivership
in December 1893.
Two years later the
railroad emerged from
receivership with a different
board of directors,
reduced mileage and
debt, and a new
president -- Edward
Payson Ripley. The
new chief executive
and his staff achieved
dramatic improvements by –
- · trimming unprofitable track age
- · instituting such cost-reduction programs as conversion of coal-fired locomotives to less costly oil
- · ordering new construction only after careful study
- · reinvesting all profits into the company
From
1898 to
1900, the company's surplus rose, the
board resumed payment of
dividends, and rising
profits generated by
Ripley's prudent management and rising national
prosperity allowed the
Santa Fe to
embark on a
modest expansion program.
Rising repair expenses,
however, worried corporate
executives. Maintenance costs,
especially for locomotives,
were rising alarmingly on
the Santa Fe
and other roads.
The cost of repair
per locomotive on
this line increased
from $2,032 in
1897 to $3,772 in
1904. The culprits
were rising wages
and material costs, as
well as declining
labor efficiency. Ripley
became convinced that trade
unions were detrimental
to his quest
for high productivity and employee
loyalty. The Santa
Fe had earlier signed agreements
with such shop
unions as the
machinists, blacksmiths, boilermakers,
and carmen in
1892, due mainly
to the firm's weak condition
Demands of the machinists'
union brought the
simmering union-management
conflict to a
crisis in 1904.
This labour organization had
stepped up its
activity on the
Santa Fe in
late 1903 with the
goal of organizing
enough men to force the
company to grant a written contract
and improved wages
for the entire system. At
that point the
only written contract
for machinists was on the
Gulf Lines (in
Texas). President Ripley
and Vice- President J. W.
Kendrick decided, however,
that the rising
union influence had to
be halted. The
machinists' union taught
the men "that their
employer is their natural
enemy," said Kendrick, and counseled
workers to do
as little as
possible. The vice-president condemned the proposed machinists' union
agreement because it would
reduce efficiency and
output. For example,
one part of the
proposed agreement specified
that such tasks
as running lathes and
stripping engines be
done only by
machinists. Kendrick argued that
such tasks could
often be performed
by lower-paid helpers or
handymen. The company knew that its
flat rejection of the
machinist proposals would
probably trigger a
strike. But the cost
of such a
conflict, Ripley wrote,
would be less
than the additional expense
of one year
under the proposed
union rules.
A more detailed
version of his
objectives appeared in business
periodicals in 1906.
These goals were –
- · restoring harmonious relations between employer and employee
- · freeing workers from the tyranny of petty officials, on the one hand, and the "individuality-destroying union domination," on the other
- · giving the line more reliable and efficient workers
- · raising automatically the pay of competent employees without interference from foremen
- · increasing shop capacity without adding new equipment
- · improving the reliability and efficiency of the work performed
- · accomplishing all this while reducing company repair costs
Thus, this
cost-conscious railroad management
wanted to lower repair
costs and make
the output more
efficient. An integral part
of these tasks
was the elimination
of union influence
in the shops.
Emerson promised that
his system would meet
those goals.
MODEL: WHAT DID
THE SYSTEM LOOK
LIKE?
Although an
admirer of Frederick
W. Taylor, the
father of scientific management,
Emerson later became
an antagonist and competitor. Emerson's
concentration on ambiguous "principles of efficiency," and
emphasis on the
labour features of Taylor's system(especially time
study and incentive
wages) drew Taylor's wrath for
being dangerous "short
cuts." Nevertheless, at the
time of
his appointment to
the Santa Fe,
Emerson considered himself one
of Taylor's disciples.
In major respects,
Emerson's
changes on
the Santa Fe
(his most important
corporate assignment)
reflected Taylor's influence,
as will be
documented later. (Among Emerson's
pre-1904 ventures were
"systematizing a large new western university," attempting
to organize US postal
routes in The
Yukon, and managing
a factory of
100 employees.)
The first
of Emerson's three
main reforms was
betterment of methods and equipment. His
goal was to
ensure that shop
conditions, methods, and
equipment in Topeka
would promote the
highest efficiency. For example,
he studied the
belting which transmitted
power to machinery.
Improvements in belting material
and maintenance lowered
failures from 300
to 55 per
month and reduced monthly belt
maintenance from $1,000
to $275. He
redesigned many machine tools
so they could
use high-speed steel,
which allowed workers to
perform tasks quicker.
In addition, he
designed dispatching boards. The
shop machinery board
had separate spaces
for each
machine, along with a peg
for requisition slips.
By examining the board,
the general foreman
could know which
jobs were to be
rushed (high-priority work
had a special
color tag) and could
assign future jobs
for each machine.
Hence the foreman
could prevent
tie-ups and idle
machines and men.
Finally Emerson greatly improved
blacksmith shop furnaces
so that men spent
less idle time waiting
for the fires
to reach operating
temperature.
The second
element of Emerson's
innovations was centralizingin Topeka
the manufacture of
tools and materials
for the entire Santa
Fe system. For
example, the Topeka
blacksmith shop began making
over 200 standardized
forgings (of bolts,
wrenches, and so on)
for the entire
system. Previously the company
had done
this
work at
several points along
the line and
occasionally had given the
work to outside
contractors. Concentrating their
manufacture allowed the railroad
to produce them
more cheaply.
Probably the
most important of
Emerson's three innovations was the
individual effort reward
system, also called
the bonus system of
pay. The basis
for this wage
incentive scheme was
time study. Using stop
watches, Emerson and
his assistants studied
thousands of
individual operations in
the Topeka shops.
The staff then decided
the appropriate time
(called "standard time") for the
tasks and composed corresponding bonus
schedules of pay. Every
worker assigned to
perform an operation
received his base hourly
pay regardless of how
slowly he toiled.
But if the employee
performed his assigned
task in the
"standard time," he was said
to be "100
percent efficient" and
received extra money. If
he performed at
66 percent efficiency
or less, he
received no bonus; 80
percent efficiency led
to a 3.25
percent bonus, 90 percent
efficiency drew a
10 percent bonus,
100 percent efficiency
merited a 20
percent bonus, and
so on.
WHAT WERE
THE RESULTS?
As Emerson's
scheme spread from Topeka
to all other
shops on the Santa
Fe system, outside
observers and company
officials both noted that
machines and men moved more quickly
and more efficiently,
generating a substantial
monetary savings. The
work reorganization was not,
however, without its
problems. There was some
resistance from workers
even after unions
were thrown out, and
even some supervisory
personnel were opposed
to the innovations.
These improvements
were reflected in
higher output and decreased
unit costs. After
two years of
work in Topeka, Emerson's system
increased shop output 57 percent, decreased
unit cost of production
36 percent, even
while the average
pay of the
men
rose 14.5 percent.
Per-unit cost of
maintenance for shop machinery and
tools fell from
$10.31 (in the
period 1903-04) to $4.89
(in the period
1906-07) on the
Santa Fe, while
per-unit cost on another
Western line --
the Southern Pacific
-- actually
rose slightly
during the same
time. In 1906
railroad Journals reported that
the Santa Fe's
new system had restored employer-
employee harmony, improved
worker efficiency and reliability, and that
for every dollar
of supervisory and
bonus pay, the
company
had saved
10.
CONCLUSION
Research suggests
that scientific management
faced two obstacles in
railroad shops, one
from the workers
and one from the
managements. Were it
not for stiff
worker resistance, the 134 system might have spread farther. Perhaps equally as
important,
railroad managements were often
skeptical of major
reorganization of their shop operations, for
understandable and not-so-understandable
reasons.
The bonus
system ended on the Santa
Fe in 1918,
not because the company decided that
it was no longer
useful but because it was
under intense pressure
from shopmen, their unions,
and (indirectly) the
USRA. Several months
later worker pressure, abetted by
USRA officials eager to
keep the railroads
running, led to
the demise of
piecework on other
rail lines. Similarly
an earlier Santa
Fe attempt to
expand the bonus
system to enginemen was
halted by the
unbending resistance of the
Brotherhood of Locomotive engineers.
The Santa Fe's
long and costly
struggle to defeat the
shopcraft unions during
the early stages
of scientific management
was one reason that smaller
lines such as
the Ann Arbor Railroad
decided against the
introduction of incentive
pay.
In the
absence of such
employee resistance, the
Santa Fe might have expanded Emerson's innovations
and retained them much longer.
More lines
might have followed
suit. In this
respect, my results conflict with
the findings of
Daniel Nelson, who has
argued that scientific management
experts encountered stiffer
opposition from
managers than
workers.
On the
other hand, the
Santa Fe experience
shows that management
opposition was formidable,
within the company and
the rest of the
railroad industry. The
varied, uncertain nature
of railroad repair work
made scientific management's
application less appropriate
than for mass
production. In certain
cases it was simply
easier to use
a shortcut version
-- piecework. The source
of some management opposition,
however, was of
less laudible origin. Many railroads had
"self satisfied attitudes" and were
not open to
change. Often railroads
were jealous of each
other and, therefore,
did not wish
to adopt a
method employed by
another. Considerable skepticism
to change was generated
by resistance to
outside experts.
Emerson
was indeed an outsider.
His chances for
advising other lines
was probably reduced by
his testimony during
the 1910 rate
hearings. These hearings generated
considerable debate within
the railroad industry about
efficiency, much of it
defensive in natureThe
decline of the
American railroad industry
can be traced to
such factors as
increased competition from
more efficient modes of transportation, and
the lopsided policies
of a federal government which
heaped subsidies on
alternate modes while it denied
railroads needed rate
hikes in the
pre-World War I
era and later (during
the Kennedy Administration) denied
them the opportunity
to lower rates.
The evidence of
this paper might
lead one to add
another factor for
railroad woes --
managements' stubborn
refusal to recognize
the potential of
Taylorism. However, that
criticism of railroad
corporate management must be
tempered by recognition
of two other
factors -- the recalcitrance of
railroad labor toward
such innovations, and
the legitimate doubts which
companies had about
the applicability of scientific
management toward their
repair establishments.
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ReplyDeleteSummary
ReplyDeleteThis paper examines how Taylorism was applied on the Santa Fe between 1904 and 1918 and shall try to answer six questions.
• What was the nature of shop work on the Santa Fe in the early 20th century?
• Why was scientific management installed?
• What did the work reorganization look like?
• What were the results?
• Why was it ended, never revised, or widely copies by other railroads?
• Finally, what are some of the broader implications of the experiment?
The first of Emerson's three main reforms was betterment of methods and equipment. His goal was to ensure that shop conditions, methods, and equipment in Topeka would promote the highest efficiency.
. Finally Emerson greatly improved blacksmith shop furnaces so that men spent less idle time waiting for the fires to reach operating temperature.
The second element of Emerson's innovations was centralizingin Topeka the manufacture of tools and materials for the entire Santa Fe system. For example, the Topeka blacksmith shop began making over 200 standardized forgings (of bolts, wrenches, and so on) for the entire system. Previously the company had done this work at several points along the line and occasionally had given the work to outside contractors. Concentrating their manufacture allowed the railroad to produce them more cheaply.
Probably the most important of Emerson's three innovations was the individual effort reward system, also called the bonus system of pay. The basis for this wage incentive scheme was time study. Using stop watches, Emerson and his assistants studiedthousands of individual operations in the Topeka shops. The staff then decided the appropriate time (called "standard time") for the tasks and composed corresponding bonus schedules of pay.