Saturday, August 11, 2012

Industrial-Engineering-Research-Paper


APPLYING SCIENTIFIC MANAGEMENT PRINCIPLES TO
RAILROAD REPAIR SHOP

Aniketh Pattnaik(10)

Source:   paper  comes from  Carl  Graves, "Scientific  Management and the  Santa Fe  Shopmen of  Topeka,  Kansas, 1900-1915,"  Ph.D diss.,  Harvard  University,  1980

PAPER:

Students  of  labour  and  business  history have  studied  scientific  management  in  such  metal  factories  as  the Watertown  Arsenal,  but  no  one  has  analyzed  closely  this  work reorganization  in  the  railroad  industry.
This  paper  examines  how Taylorism  was  applied  on  the  Santa  Fe  between  1904  and  1918 and shall  try  to  answer  six  questions.
  1. ·         What  was  the  nature  of  shop work  on  the  Santa  Fe  in  the  early  20th  century?
  2. ·         Why was  scientific  management  installed?
  3. ·         What  did  the  work  reorganization look  like?
  4. ·         What  were  the  results?
  5. ·         Why was  it  ended,  never revised,  or  widely  copies  by  other  railroads?
  6. ·         Finally,  what  are some of  the  broader  implications  of  the  experiment?


WHAT  WAS  THE  NATURE  OF  RAILROAD  SHOP ( SANTA  FE)?

Railroad  shops  specialized  in  the  construction  and  repair  of locomotives  and  freight  and  passenger  cars.  Although  some lines built  part  of  their  locomotives  and  cars,  most  of  this  work  was performed  by  such  outside  firms  as  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works.
Therefore,  most  railroad  shop  work  was  the  repair  of  rolling stock  and  engines.  The  task  was  done  by  railroad  mechanics  -- machinists,  boilermakers,  blacksmiths,  carmen,  their  helpers  and apprentices,  as  well  as  common laborers.  In  the  first  two decades  of  the  20th  century,  railroad  shopmen were  more  numerous than  the  train  and enginemen  and  just  as  essential  to  their companies'  operations.  These  shopmen toiled  in  roundhouses  and in  small  and  large  shops  located  at  various  points  along  the line.  While  the  men  in  roundhouses  and  small  shops  did  minor 124 repairs,  the  mechanics in  larger  facilities  performed  such time- consuming tasks  as  locomotive  rebuilding,  as  well  as  some new construction.
The  Santa  Fe  Railway's  chief  repair  and  construction  facilities  were  located  in  Topeka,  Kansas.  These shops employed 1,600 men in  1900,  and  by  1918  the  total  was  approximately  3,000.  In addition,  medium-sized shops (employing between 250  and 750 men) were  located  in  such  places  as  San Bernardino,  California;  Ft. Madison,  Iowa;  and  Cleburne,  Texas.  Smaller  contingents  of shopmen were  found  in  roundhouses and adjacent  shop facilities  at nearly  every  division  point  along  the  system.  Except  for  the Topeka car  shop employees (who performed  piecework),  all  Santa  Fe shopmen were  paid  on  an  hourly  basis.
Shop work  on  the  Santa  Fe  was  varied,  although  at  times  it approached the  repetitive  nature  of  mass production.  Railway mechanics  disassembled  and  rebuilt  locomotives  and  repaired  or built  freight  and  passenger  cars.  In  the  larger  shops  this  work
was  done  by  an  increasingly  specialized  labour  force.  Occupational  titles  reflected  this  specialization:  there  were  (in Topeka)  blacksmiths,  hammersmiths,  and  springmakers;  there  were inside  and  outside  coach  carpenters,  car  painters,  air  brake repairers,  and  car  repairers;  there  were  erection  and  machine machinists,  as  well  as  various  types  of  helpers  and  labourers.
Sometimes  the  work  resembled  mass  production. Although  they  had  many common parts,  there  were  countless  variations  in  their structure, which  meant  that  the  work  was  more  varied  and  required  more  skill than  repetitive  assembly-line  mass production.  (During  the  age of  steam,  the  Santa  Fe  had  280  different  classes  of  locomotives.)

WHY  WAS  SCIENTIFIC  MANAGEMENT  INSTALLED?
By  introducing  scientific  management,  the  Santa  Fe  hoped  to check  rising  repair  costs,  increasing  union  influence  over  shop work,  and  general  deterioration  in  worker-management  relations.
The  company's concern  for  efficiency  and  cost  reduction  was shared  by  other corporations  in  this  period,  but  the  Santa  Fe's interest  was  especially  strong  because  of  its  recent  recovery from  bankruptcy  and  its  new leadership.  A  depression  had  forced the  already  troubled  Santa  Fe  into  receivership  in  December  1893.
Two years  later  the  railroad  emerged  from  receivership  with  a different  board  of  directors,  reduced  mileage  and  debt,  and  a  new president  --  Edward  Payson  Ripley.  The  new  chief  executive  and his  staff  achieved  dramatic  improvements  by –
  • ·         trimming  unprofitable track age
  • ·         instituting  such  cost-reduction  programs  as  conversion of  coal-fired  locomotives  to  less  costly  oil
  • ·         ordering  new construction  only  after  careful  study
  • ·         reinvesting  all  profits into  the  company


From 1898  to  1900,  the  company's surplus  rose, the  board  resumed payment  of  dividends,  and  rising  profits  generated  by  Ripley's  prudent  management and rising  national  prosperity  allowed  the  Santa  Fe  to  embark  on  a  modest  expansion  program.
Rising  repair  expenses,  however,  worried  corporate  executives.  Maintenance  costs,  especially  for  locomotives,  were rising  alarmingly  on  the  Santa  Fe  and  other  roads.  The  cost  of repair  per  locomotive  on  this  line  increased  from  $2,032  in  1897 to  $3,772  in  1904.  The  culprits  were  rising  wages  and  material costs,  as  well  as  declining  labor  efficiency.  Ripley  became convinced  that  trade  unions  were  detrimental  to  his  quest  for high  productivity  and  employee  loyalty.  The  Santa  Fe  had  earlier signed  agreements  with  such  shop  unions  as  the  machinists,  blacksmiths,  boilermakers,  and  carmen  in  1892,  due  mainly  to  the firm's  weak condition
Demands of  the  machinists'  union  brought  the  simmering union-management  conflict  to  a  crisis  in  1904.  This  labour organization  had  stepped  up  its  activity  on  the  Santa  Fe  in  late 1903  with  the  goal  of  organizing  enough men to  force  the  company to  grant  a  written  contract  and  improved  wages  for  the  entire system.  At  that  point  the  only  written  contract  for  machinists was on  the  Gulf  Lines  (in  Texas).  President  Ripley  and Vice- President  J.  W.  Kendrick  decided,  however,  that  the  rising  union influence  had  to  be  halted.  The  machinists'  union  taught  the  men "that  their  employer is  their  natural  enemy," said  Kendrick,  and counseled  workers  to  do  as  little  as  possible.  The  vice-president condemned the  proposed machinists'  union  agreement  because  it would  reduce  efficiency  and  output.  For  example,  one  part  of  the proposed  agreement  specified  that  such  tasks  as  running  lathes and  stripping  engines  be  done  only  by  machinists.  Kendrick argued  that  such  tasks  could  often  be  performed  by  lower-paid helpers  or  handymen.  The  company knew that  its  flat  rejection  of the  machinist  proposals  would  probably  trigger  a  strike.  But  the cost  of  such  a  conflict,  Ripley  wrote,  would  be  less  than  the additional  expense  of  one  year  under  the  proposed  union  rules.
A  more  detailed  version  of  his  objectives  appeared  in business  periodicals  in  1906.  These goals  were –
  • ·         restoring harmonious  relations  between  employer  and  employee
  • ·         freeing workers  from  the  tyranny  of  petty  officials,  on  the  one  hand,  and the  "individuality-destroying  union  domination,"  on  the  other
  • ·         giving  the  line  more  reliable  and  efficient  workers
  • ·         raising  automatically  the  pay  of  competent  employees  without interference  from  foremen
  • ·         increasing  shop  capacity  without adding  new  equipment
  • ·         improving  the  reliability  and  efficiency  of  the  work  performed
  • ·         accomplishing  all  this while  reducing  company repair  costs

Thus,  this  cost-conscious  railroad  management  wanted  to lower  repair  costs  and  make  the  output  more  efficient.  An integral  part  of  these  tasks  was  the  elimination  of  union  influence  in  the  shops.  Emerson  promised  that  his  system  would meet  those  goals.

MODEL: WHAT  DID  THE  SYSTEM  LOOK  LIKE?

Although  an  admirer  of  Frederick  W.  Taylor,  the  father of  scientific  management,  Emerson  later  became  an  antagonist  and competitor.  Emerson's  concentration  on  ambiguous "principles  of efficiency,"  and  emphasis  on  the  labour  features  of  Taylor's system(especially  time  study  and  incentive  wages)  drew Taylor's wrath  for  being  dangerous  "short  cuts."  Nevertheless,  at  the time  of  his  appointment  to  the  Santa  Fe,  Emerson  considered himself  one  of  Taylor's  disciples.  In  major  respects,  Emerson's
changes  on  the  Santa  Fe  (his  most  important  corporate  assignment) reflected  Taylor's  influence,  as  will  be  documented later. (Among Emerson's  pre-1904  ventures  were  "systematizing  a  large new western  university,"  attempting  to  organize  US postal  routes in  The  Yukon,  and  managing  a  factory  of  100  employees.)

The  first  of  Emerson's  three  main  reforms  was  betterment  of methods  and  equipment.  His  goal  was  to  ensure  that  shop  conditions,  methods,  and  equipment  in  Topeka  would  promote  the  highest efficiency.  For  example,  he  studied  the  belting  which  transmitted  power  to  machinery.  Improvements in  belting  material  and  maintenance  lowered  failures  from  300  to  55  per  month  and  reduced monthly  belt  maintenance  from  $1,000  to  $275.  He  redesigned  many machine  tools  so  they  could  use  high-speed  steel,  which  allowed workers  to  perform  tasks  quicker.  In  addition,  he  designed dispatching  boards.  The  shop  machinery  board  had  separate  spaces
for  each  machine,  along  with  a  peg  for  requisition  slips.  By examining  the  board,  the  general  foreman  could  know  which  jobs were  to  be  rushed  (high-priority  work  had  a  special  color  tag) and  could  assign  future  jobs  for  each  machine.  Hence  the  foreman
could  prevent  tie-ups  and  idle  machines  and  men.  Finally  Emerson greatly  improved  blacksmith  shop  furnaces  so  that  men spent  less idle  time  waiting  for  the  fires  to  reach  operating  temperature.
The  second  element  of  Emerson's  innovations  was  centralizingin  Topeka  the  manufacture  of  tools  and  materials  for  the  entire Santa  Fe  system.  For  example,  the  Topeka  blacksmith  shop  began making  over  200  standardized  forgings  (of  bolts,  wrenches,  and  so on)  for  the  entire  system.  Previously the company had  done  this
work  at  several  points  along  the  line  and  occasionally  had  given the  work  to  outside  contractors.  Concentrating  their  manufacture allowed  the  railroad  to  produce  them  more  cheaply.

Probably  the  most  important  of  Emerson's  three  innovations was  the  individual  effort  reward  system,  also  called  the  bonus system  of  pay.  The  basis  for  this  wage  incentive  scheme  was  time study.  Using  stop  watches,  Emerson  and  his  assistants  studied
thousands  of  individual  operations  in  the  Topeka  shops.  The staff  then  decided  the  appropriate  time  (called  "standard  time") for  the  tasks  and  composed corresponding  bonus  schedules  of  pay. Every  worker  assigned  to  perform  an  operation  received  his  base hourly  pay  regardless  of  how slowly  he  toiled.  But  if  the employee  performed  his  assigned  task  in  the  "standard  time,"  he was said  to  be  "100  percent  efficient"  and  received  extra  money. If  he  performed  at  66  percent  efficiency  or  less,  he  received  no bonus;  80  percent  efficiency  led  to  a  3.25  percent  bonus,  90 percent  efficiency  drew  a  10  percent  bonus,  100  percent  efficiency  merited  a  20  percent  bonus,  and  so  on.

WHAT  WERE  THE  RESULTS?

As  Emerson's  scheme spread  from  Topeka  to  all  other  shops  on the  Santa  Fe  system,  outside  observers  and  company  officials  both noted  that  machines  and  men moved more  quickly  and  more  efficiently,  generating  a  substantial  monetary  savings.  The  work reorganization  was  not,  however,  without  its  problems.  There  was some  resistance  from  workers  even  after  unions  were  thrown  out, and  even  some  supervisory  personnel  were  opposed  to  the innovations.

These  improvements  were  reflected  in  higher  output  and decreased  unit  costs.  After  two  years  of  work  in  Topeka, Emerson's  system  increased  shop output  57  percent,  decreased  unit cost  of  production  36  percent,  even  while  the  average  pay  of  the
men rose  14.5  percent.  Per-unit  cost  of  maintenance  for  shop machinery  and  tools  fell  from  $10.31  (in  the  period  1903-04)  to $4.89  (in  the  period  1906-07)  on  the  Santa  Fe,  while  per-unit cost  on  another  Western  line  --  the  Southern  Pacific  --  actually
rose  slightly  during  the  same  time.  In  1906  railroad  Journals reported  that  the  Santa  Fe's  new system had restored  employer- employee  harmony,  improved  worker  efficiency  and  reliability,  and that  for  every  dollar  of  supervisory  and  bonus  pay,  the  company
had  saved  10.

CONCLUSION

Research  suggests  that  scientific  management  faced  two obstacles  in  railroad  shops,  one  from  the  workers  and  one  from the  managements.  Were  it  not  for  stiff  worker  resistance,  the 134 system might have spread farther.  Perhaps equally  as  important,
railroad  managements were  often  skeptical  of  major  reorganization of  their  shop operations,  for  understandable  and not-so-understandable reasons.
The bonus system ended on  the  Santa  Fe  in  1918,  not  because the  company decided  that  it  was no  longer  useful  but  because it was under  intense  pressure  from  shopmen, their  unions,  and (indirectly)  the  USRA.  Several  months  later  worker  pressure, abetted  by  USRA officials  eager  to  keep  the  railroads  running, led  to  the  demise  of  piecework  on  other  rail  lines.  Similarly  an earlier  Santa  Fe  attempt  to  expand  the  bonus  system  to  enginemen was halted  by  the  unbending resistance  of  the  Brotherhood  of Locomotive  engineers.  The  Santa  Fe's  long  and  costly  struggle  to defeat  the  shopcraft  unions  during  the  early  stages  of  scientific management was one reason  that  smaller  lines  such  as  the  Ann Arbor  Railroad  decided  against  the  introduction  of  incentive  pay.
In  the  absence  of  such  employee  resistance,  the  Santa  Fe  might have  expanded Emerson's  innovations  and retained  them much longer.
More  lines  might  have  followed  suit.  In  this  respect,  my results conflict  with  the  findings  of  Daniel  Nelson,  who has  argued  that scientific  management  experts  encountered  stiffer  opposition  from
managers  than  workers.
On  the  other  hand,  the  Santa  Fe  experience  shows  that management opposition  was  formidable,  within  the  company and  the rest  of  the  railroad  industry.  The  varied,  uncertain  nature  of railroad  repair  work  made scientific  management's application less  appropriate  than  for  mass  production.  In  certain  cases  it was  simply  easier  to  use  a  shortcut  version  --  piecework.  The source  of  some management  opposition,  however,  was  of  less laudible  origin.  Many railroads  had  "self  satisfied  attitudes" and  were  not  open  to  change.  Often  railroads  were  jealous  of each  other  and,  therefore,  did  not  wish  to  adopt  a  method  employed  by  another.  Considerable  skepticism  to  change  was generated  by  resistance  to  outside  experts.

 Emerson  was  indeed an  outsider.  His  chances  for  advising  other  lines  was  probably reduced  by  his  testimony  during  the  1910  rate  hearings.  These hearings  generated  considerable  debate  within  the  railroad industry  about  efficiency,  much of  it  defensive  in  natureThe  decline  of  the  American  railroad  industry  can  be  traced to  such  factors  as  increased  competition  from  more  efficient modes of  transportation,  and  the  lopsided  policies  of  a  federal government  which  heaped  subsidies  on  alternate  modes while  it denied  railroads  needed  rate  hikes  in  the  pre-World  War  I  era  and later  (during  the  Kennedy Administration)  denied  them  the  opportunity  to  lower  rates.  The  evidence  of  this  paper  might  lead one  to  add  another  factor  for  railroad  woes  --  managements' stubborn  refusal  to  recognize  the  potential  of  Taylorism.  However,  that  criticism  of  railroad  corporate  management must  be  tempered  by  recognition  of  two  other  factors  --  the recalcitrance  of  railroad  labor  toward  such  innovations,  and  the legitimate  doubts  which  companies  had  about  the  applicability  of scientific  management  toward  their  repair  establishments.

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  2. Summary

    This paper examines how Taylorism was applied on the Santa Fe between 1904 and 1918 and shall try to answer six questions.
    • What was the nature of shop work on the Santa Fe in the early 20th century?
    • Why was scientific management installed?
    • What did the work reorganization look like?
    • What were the results?
    • Why was it ended, never revised, or widely copies by other railroads?
    • Finally, what are some of the broader implications of the experiment?
    The first of Emerson's three main reforms was betterment of methods and equipment. His goal was to ensure that shop conditions, methods, and equipment in Topeka would promote the highest efficiency.
    . Finally Emerson greatly improved blacksmith shop furnaces so that men spent less idle time waiting for the fires to reach operating temperature.
    The second element of Emerson's innovations was centralizingin Topeka the manufacture of tools and materials for the entire Santa Fe system. For example, the Topeka blacksmith shop began making over 200 standardized forgings (of bolts, wrenches, and so on) for the entire system. Previously the company had done this work at several points along the line and occasionally had given the work to outside contractors. Concentrating their manufacture allowed the railroad to produce them more cheaply.
    Probably the most important of Emerson's three innovations was the individual effort reward system, also called the bonus system of pay. The basis for this wage incentive scheme was time study. Using stop watches, Emerson and his assistants studiedthousands of individual operations in the Topeka shops. The staff then decided the appropriate time (called "standard time") for the tasks and composed corresponding bonus schedules of pay.

    ReplyDelete